Physical and cognitive cycling performance wearing a training mask
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.21134/eurjhm.2023.51.7Keywords:
Hypoxia, Altitude, Cycling, Respiratory Muscle Training, Reaction Time, Sports PerformanceAbstract
Training mask is a respiratory muscle training device, although it was initially advertised as altitude simulators. The aim of the study was to assess the acute effects of wearing a training masks on physical and cognitive performance in cyclists. Twenty physically active subjects performed two graded exercise tests (GXT) until exhaustion, wearing and not wearing a mask, in counterbalanced order. Immediately after the GXT, they performed a cognitive task on a computer. Power, heart rate, lactate, Rating of Perceived Effort (RPE), peripheral oxygen saturation, lung capacity and cognitive variables (reaction time and response accuracy) were measured. Final power was 14.5 % lower when wearing a mask (p < 0.001; ES = 1.515). Heart rate (p = 0.002; ES = 0.790), lactate (p = 0.002; ES = 0.870), and RPE (p = 0.008; ES = 0.879) were also lower at the end of the mask test. However, in the intermediate stages of the test, at the same intensity, there was no difference in heart rate, while RPE was higher with mask. There were no differences between conditions in peripheral oxygen saturation or cognitive variables. In conclusion, the use of a training mask limits maximal aerobic performance, but there are no differences in cognitive variables or physiological parameters at the same intensity.
Downloads
Metrics
References
Bishop, D. J. (2012). Fatigue during intermittent-sprint exercise. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 39(9), 836–841. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1681.2012.05735.x
Burtscher, M., Faulhaber, M., Flatz, M., Likar, R., & Nachbauer, W. (2006). Effects of short-term acclimatization to altitude (3200 m) on aerobic and anaerobic exercise performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 27(8), 629–635. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2005-872823
Burykh, E. A., & Sergeeva, E. G. (2007). Characteristics of the human EEG during cognitive-mnemenic activity under hypoxic conditions. Human Physiology, 33(2), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0362119707020065
Cockcroft, A., Beaumont, A., Adams, L., & Guz, A. (1985). Arterial oxygen desaturation during treadmill and bicycle exercise in patients with chronic obstructive airways disease. Clinical Science, 68(3), 327–332. https://doi.org/10.1042/cs0680327
Cristina, M. M., & Cătălin, G. (2015). A study on the influence of training at altitude (2000m) on the maximum aerobic velocity in athletics (mountain race). Science, Movement and Health, 15(2), 135–146.
Davranche, K., Casini, L., Arnal, P. J., Rupp, T., Perrey, S., & Verges, S. (2016). Cognitive functions and cerebral oxygenation changes during acute and prolonged hypoxic exposure. Physiology & Behavior, 164(Part A), 189–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.06.001
Davranche, K., Hall, B., & McMorris, T. (2009). Effect of acute exercise on cognitive control required during an Eriksen Flanker Task. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(5), 628–639. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.5.628
Deboeck, G., Moraine, J. J., & Naeije, R. (2005). Respiratory muscle strength may explain hypoxia-induced decrease in vital capacity. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 37(5), 754–758. https://doi.org/10.1249/01.MSS.0000162687.18387.97
Devereux, G., Le Winton, H. G., Black, J., & Beato, M. (2022). Effect of a high-intensity short-duration cycling elevation training mask on V̇O2max and anaerobic power. A randomized controlled trial. Biology of Sport, 39(1), 181–187. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2021.102926
di Prampero, P. E., & Ferretti, G. (1990). Factors limiting maximal oxygen consumption in humans. Respiration Physiology, 80(2), 113–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-5687(90)90075-A
Downey, A. E., Chenoweth, L. M., Townsend, D. K., Ranum, J. D., Ferguson, C. S., & Harms, C. A. (2007). Effects of inspiratory muscle training on exercise responses in normoxia and hypoxia. Respiratory Physiology & Neurobiology, 156(2), 137–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resp.2006.08.006
Faghy, M. A., Brown, P. I., Davis, N. M., Mayes, J. P., & Maden-Wilkinson, T. M. (2021). A flow resistive inspiratory muscle training mask worn during high-intensity interval training does not improve 5 km running time-trial performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(1), 183–191. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-020-04505-3
Faiss, R., Orelli, C. von, Dériaz, O., & Millet, G. P. (2014). Responses to exercise in normobaric hypoxia: Comparison of elite and recreational ski mountaineers. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 9(6), 978–984. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2013-0524
Faude, O., Kindermann, W., & Meyer, T. (2009). Lactate threshold concepts. Sports Medicine, 39(6), 469–490. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200939060-00003
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
Granados, J., Gillum, T. L., Castillo, W., Christmas, K. M., & Kuennen, M. R. (2016). “Functional” respiratory muscle training during endurance exercise causes modest hypoxemia but overall is well tolerated. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(3), 755–762. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001151
Gronwald, T., Hoos, O., & Hottenrott, K. (2019). Effects of acute normobaric hypoxia on non-linear dynamics of cardiac autonomic activity during constant workload cycling exercise. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 999. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00999
Hahn, A. G., & Gore, C. J. (2001). The effect of altitude on cycling performance. Sports Medicine, 31(7), 533–557. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131070-00008
Hochachka, P. W., Beatty, C. L., Burelle, Y., Trump, M. E., McKenzie, D. C., & Matheson, G. O. (2002). The Lactate Paradox in Human High-Altitude Physiological Performance. Physiology, 17(3), 122–126. https://doi.org/10.1152/nips.01382.2001
Jagim, A. R., Dominy, T. A., Camic, C. L., Wright, G., Doberstein, S., Jones, M. T., & Oliver, J. M. (2018). Acute Effects of the Elevation Training Mask on Strength Performance in Recreational Weight lifters. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(2), 482–489. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002308
Jung, H. C., Lee, N. H., John, S. D., & Lee, S. (2019). The elevation training mask induces modest hypoxaemia but does not affect heart rate variability during cycling in healthy adults. Biology of Sport, 36(2), 105–112. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2019.79976
Levine, B. D. (2008). VO2max: What do we know, and what do we still need to know? The Journal of Physiology, 586(1), 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2007.147629
Levine, B. D., & Stray-Gundersen, J. (1997). “Living high-training low”: Effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83(1), 102–112. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.1.102
Loe, H., Rognmo, Ø., Saltin, B., & Wisløff, U. (2013). Aerobic capacity reference data in 3816 healthy men and women 20–90 Years. PloS One, 8(5), e64319. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0064319
Lomax, M. (2010). Inspiratory muscle training, altitude, and arterial oxygen desaturation: A preliminary investigation. Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine, 81(5), 498–501. https://doi.org/10.3357/ASEM.2718.2010
Lomax, M., Massey, H. C., & House, J. R. (2017). Inspiratory muscle training effects on cycling during acute hypoxic exposure. Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance, 88(6), 544–549. https://doi.org/10.3357/AMHP.4780.2017
López-Pérez, M. E., Romero-Arenas, S., Colomer-Poveda, D., Keller, M., & Márquez, G. (2020). Psychophysiological Responses During a Cycling Test to Exhaustion While Wearing the Elevation Training Mask. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003626
Ma, H., Wang, Y., Wu, J., Wang, B., Guo, S., Luo, P., & Han, B. (2015). Long-term exposure to high altitude affects conflict control in the conflict-resolving stage. PLoS ONE, 10(12), e0145246. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145246
Mader, A., Liesen, H., Heck, H., Phiippi, H., Schürch, P. M., & Hollmann, W. (1976). Zur beurteilung der sportartspezifischen ausdauerleistungsfahigkeit. Sportarzt Sportmed, 27, 80–88.
Mason, N. P., Barry, P. W., Pollard, A. J., Collier, D. J., Taub, N. A., Miller, M. R., & Milledge, J. S. (2000). Serial changes in spirometry during an ascent to 5300m in the Nepalese Himalayas. High Altitude Medicine & Biology, 1(3), 185–195. https://doi.org/10.1089/15270290050144181
Mateika, J. H., & Duffin, J. (1994). The ventilation, lactate and electromyographic thresholds during incremental exercise tests in normoxia, hypoxia and hyperoxia. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 69(2), 110–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00609402
McLean, B. D., Gore, C. J., & Kemp, J. (2014). Application of “live low-train high” for enhancing normoxic exercise performance in team sport athletes. Sports Medicine, 44(9), 1275–1287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0204-8
Motoyama, Y. L., Joel, G. B., Pereira, P. E. A., Esteves, G. J., & Azevedo, P. H. S. M. (2016). Airflow-restricting mask reduces acute performance in resistance exercise. Sports, 4(4), 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports4040046
Muza, S. R. (2007). Military applications of hypoxic training for high-altitude operations. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(9), 1625–1631. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0b013e3180de49fe
Okano, A. H., Fontes, E. B., Montenegro, R. A., Farinatti, P. de T. V., Cyrino, E. S., Li, L. M., … Noakes, T. D. (2015). Brain stimulation modulates the autonomic nervous system, rating of perceived exertion and performance during maximal exercise. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 49(18), 1213–1218. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2012-091658
Öncen, S., & Pinar, S. (2018). Effects of training mask on heart rate and anxiety during the graded exercise test and recovery. European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1164390
Ott, T., Joyce, M. C., & Hillman, A. R. (2021). Effects of Acute High-Intensity Exercise With the Elevation Training Mask or Hypoxicator on Pulmonary Function, Metabolism, and Hormones. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 35(9), 2486–2491. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003175
Porcari, J. P., Probst, L., Forrester, K., Doberstein, S., Foster, C., Cress, M. L., & Schmidt, K. (2016). Effect of wearing the Elevation Training Mask on aerobic capacity, lung function, and hematological variables. Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, 15(2), 379–386.
Rhea, M. (2004). Determining the magnitude of treatment effects in strength training research through the use of the effect size. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 18(4), 918–920.
Roberts, A., Clark, S., Townsend, N., Anderson, M., Gore, C., & Hahn, A. (2003). Changes in performance, maximal oxygen uptake and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit after 5, 10 and 15 days of live high:train low altitude exposure. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 88(4), 390–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0720-3
Romero-Arenas, S., López-Pérez, E., Colomer-Poveda, D., & Márquez, G. (2021). Oxygenation Responses While Wearing the Elevation Training Mask During an Incremental Cycling Test. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 35(7), 1897–1904. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003038
Rusko, H. K., Tikkanen, H., Paavolainen, L., Hämäläinen, I., Kalliokoski, K., & Puranen, A. (1999). Effect of living in hypoxia and training in normoxia on sea level VO2max and red cell mass. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 31(5), S86.
Rusko, H., Tikkanen, H., & Peltonen, J. (2004). Altitude and endurance training. Journal of Sports Sciences, 22(10), 928–945. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410400005933
Ruz, M., Correa, Á., Funes, M. J., Macizo, P., Sanabria, D., & Vaquero, J. M. M. (2011). Manual para investigadores principiantes en Psicología Experimental y Neurociencia Cognitiva. Granada, Spain: University of Granada.
Salas-Montoro, J.-A., Mateo-March, M., Sánchez-Muñoz, C., & Zabala, M. (2022). Determination of second lactate threshold using near-infrared spectroscopy in elite cyclists. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 43(8), 721–728. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1738-0252
Salazar-Martínez, E., Gatterer, H., Burtscher, M., Naranjo Orellana, J., & Santalla, A. (2017). Influence of inspiratory muscle training on ventilatory efficiency and cycling performance in normoxia and hypoxia. Frontiers in Physiology, 8(133). https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2017.00133
Sellers, J. H., Monaghan, T. P., Schnaiter, J. A., Jacobson, B. H., & Pope, Z. K. (2016). Efficacy of a ventilatory training mask to improve anaerobic and aerobic capacity in reserve officers’ training corps cadets. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 30(4), 1155–1160. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001184
Shei, R.-J. (2018). Recent advancements in our understanding of the ergogenic effect of respiratory muscle training in healthy humans: A systematic review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 32(9), 2665–2676. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000002730
Tomczak, S. E., Guenette, J. A., Reid, W. D., Mckenzie, D. C., & Sheel, A. W. (2011). Diaphragm fatigue after submaximal exercise with chest wall restriction. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 43(3), 416–424. https://doi.org/10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181ef5e67
Townsend, N. E., Gore, C. J., Hahn, A. G., McKenna, M. J., Aughey, R. J., Clark, S. A., … Chow, C.-M. (2002). Living high-training low increases hypoxic ventilatory response of well-trained endurance athletes. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93(4), 1498–1505. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00381.2002
Vogel, J. A., & Harris, C. W. (1967). Cardiopulmonary responses of resting man during early exposure to high altitude. Journal of Applied Physiology, 22(6), 1124–1128. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1967.22.6.1124
Warren, B., Spaniol, F. J., & Bonnette, R. (2017). The effects of an elevation training mask on VO2max of male reserve officers training corps cadets. International Journal of Exercise Science, 10(1), 37–43.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
This journal is covered under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/). The rights of printing and reproduction by any way and means are the property of the European Journal of Human Movement, and by extension of each one of the authors of the articles.