Physical exercise minimizes the toxic triad for cancer: physical inactivity, low fitness, and obesity
Abstract
The so-called toxic triad of factors linked to cancer, namely obesity, poor cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and physical inactivity, increase the risk of cancer and, when cancer is present, worsen its prognosis. Thus, obesity and a sedentary lifestyle have been linked to an elevated cancer risk whereas regular physical exercise and good CRF diminish this risk. Despite genetic risk factors, there is evidence to show that some lifestyle modifications are capable of reducing the incidence of cancer and its associated morbidity and mortality. Regular physical exercise targeted at maintaining body weight within healthy limits and improving CRF will reduce a person's cancer risk and, once diagnosed, will also improve its prognosis, reducing mortality and the risk of disease recurrence through similar effects. In this review, we describe how physical activity can be used as a pleiotropic, coadjuvant tool to minimize the toxic triad for cancer and update the mechanisms proposed to date for the effects observed.
Downloads
Metrics
References
Abbenhardt, C., McTiernan, A., Alfano, C. M., Wener, M. H., Campbell, K. L., Duggan, C., Ulrich, C. M. (2013). Effects of individual and combined dietary weight loss and exercise interventions in postmenopausal women on adiponectin and leptin levels. J Intern Med, 274(2), 163-175. doi: 10.1111/joim.12062
Abioye, A. I., Odesanya, M. O., & Ibrahim, N. A. (2014). Physical activity and risk of gastric cancer: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Br J Sports Med. doi: bjsports-2013-092778 [pii] 10.1136/bjsports-2013-092778
Ahmed, R. L., Thomas, W., Yee, D., & Schmitz, K. H. (2006). Randomized controlled trial of weight training and lymphedema in breast cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol, 24(18), 2765-2772. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2005.03.6749
American-Cancer-Society. (2004). American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts and Figures. In A. C. Society (Ed.). Washington, DC.
Aoi, W., Naito, Y., Takagi, T., Tanimura, Y., Takanami, Y., Kawai, Y., Yoshikawa, T. (2013). A novel myokine, secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC), suppresses colon tumorigenesis via regular exercise. Gut, 62(6), 882-889. doi: gutjnl-2011-300776 [pii] 10.1136/gutjnl-2011-300776
Aune, D., Greenwood, D. C., Chan, D. S., Vieira, R., Vieira, A. R., Navarro Rosenblatt, D. A., Norat, T. (2012). Body mass index, abdominal fatness and pancreatic cancer risk: a systematic review and non-linear dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann Oncol, 23(4), 843-852. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdr398
Azvolinsky, A. (2014). Cancer risk: the fat tissue-BMI-obesity connection. J Natl Cancer Inst, 106(4), dju100. doi: 10.1093/jnci/dju100
Ballard-Barbash, R., Hunsberger, S., Alciati, M. H., Blair, S. N., Goodwin, P. J., McTiernan, A., Schatzkin, A. (2009). Physical activity, weight control, and breast cancer risk and survival: clinical trial rationale and design considerations. . Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 101(9), 630-643. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djp068.
Bhaskaran, K., Douglas, I., Forbes, H., dos-Santos-Silva, I., Leon, D. A., & Smeeth, L. (2014). Body-mass index and risk of 22 specific cancers: a population-based cohort study of 5•24 million UK adults. Lancet, 384(9945), 755-765. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60892-8
Bigley, A. B., Spielmann, G., LaVoy, E. C., & Simpson, R. J. (2013). Can exercise-related improvements in immunity influence cancer prevention and prognosis in the elderly? Maturitas, 76(1), 51-56. doi: S0378-5122(13)00194-1 [pii]10.1016/j.maturitas.2013.06.010
Blair, S. N., Kohl, H. W., Barlow, C. E., Paffenbarger, R. S., Gibbons, L. W., & Macera, C. A. (1995). Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. JAMA, 273(14), 1093-1098.
Booth, A., Magnuson, A., Fouts, J., & Foster, M. (2015). Adipose tissue, obesity and adipokines: role in cancer promotion. Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig, 21(1), 57-74. doi: 10.1515/hmbci-2014-0037
Booth, F. W., Roberts, C. K., & Laye, M. J. (2012). Lack of exercise is a major cause of chronic diseases. Compr Physiol, 2(2), 1143-1211. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c110025
Bouchard, C., Daw, E. W., Rice, T., Perusse, L., Gagnon, J., Province, M. A., Wilmore, J. H. (1998). Familial resemblance for VO2max in the sedentary state: the HERITAGE family study. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30(2), 252-258.
Bourke, L., Smith, D., Steed, L., Hooper, R., Carter, A., Catto, J., Rosario, D. J. (2016). Exercise for Men with Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Eur Urol, 69(4), 693-703. doi: 10.1016/j.eururo.2015.10.047
Bower, J. E., Ganz, P. A., Tao, M. L., Hu, W., Belin, T. R., Sepah, S., ... & Aziz, N. (2009). Inflammatory biomarkers and fatigue during radiation therapy for breast and prostate cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 15(17), 5534-5540.
Boyle, T., Keegel, T., Bull, F., Heyworth, J., & Fritschi, L. (2012). Physical activity and risks of proximal and distal colon cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst, 104(20), 1548-1561. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djs354
Brekken, R. A., & Sage, E. H. (2001). SPARC, a matricellular protein: at the crossroads of cell-matrix communication. Matrix Biol, 19(8), 816-827. doi: S0945053X00001335 [pii]
Broholm, C., & Pedersen, B. K. (2010). Leukaemia inhibitory factor--an exercise-induced myokine. Exerc Immunol Rev, 16, 77-85.
Brown, J. C., Huedo-Medina, T. B., Pescatello, L. S., Pescatello, S. M., Ferrer, R. A., & Johnson, B. T. (2011). Efficacy of exercise interventions in modulating cancer-related fatigue among adult cancer survivors: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 20(1), 123-133. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-10-0988
Byers, T., & Sedjo, R. L. (2015). Body fatness as a cause of cancer: epidemiologic clues to biologic mechanisms. Endocr Relat Cancer, 22(3), R125-134. doi: 10.1530/ERC-14-0580
Calle, E. E., & Kaaks, R. (2004). Overweight, obesity and cancer: epidemiological evidence and proposed mechanisms. Nat Rev Cancer, 4(8), 579-591. doi: 10.1038/nrc1408nrc1408 [pii]
Calle, E. E., Rodriguez, C., Walker-Thurmond, K., & Thun, M. J. (2003). Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med, 348(17), 1625-1638. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa021423348/17/1625 [pii]
Cameron, D. A., Douglas, S., Brown, J. E., & Anderson, R. A. (2010). Bone mineral density loss during adjuvant chemotherapy in pre-menopausal women with early breast cancer: is it dependent on oestrogen deficiency? Breast Cancer Res Treat, 123(3), 805-814. doi: 10.1007/s10549-010-0899-7
Campbell, K. L., Neil, S. E., & Winters-Stone, K. M. (2012). Review of exercise studies in breast cancer survivors: attention to principles of exercise training. Br J Sports Med, 46(13), 909-916. doi: 46/13/909 [pii] 10.1136/bjsports-2010-082719
Campbell, P. T. (2014). Obesity: a certain and avoidable cause of cancer. Lancet, 384(9945), 727-728. doi: S0140-6736(14)61172-7 [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61172-7
Campbell, P. T., Patel, A. V., Newton, C. C., Jacobs, E. J., & Gapstur, S. M. (2013). Associations of recreational physical activity and leisure time spent sitting with colorectal cancer survival. J Clin Oncol, 31(7), 876-885. doi: JCO.2012.45.9735 [pii] 10.1200/JCO.2012.45.9735
Coleman, R. E., Body, J. J., Gralow, J. R., & Lipton, A. (2008). Bone loss in patients with breast cancer receiving aromatase inhibitors and associated treatment strategies. Cancer Treat Rev, 34 Suppl 1, S31-42. doi: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2008.03.005
Cormie, P., Pumpa, K., Galvão, D. A., Turner, E., Spry, N., Saunders, C., Newton, R. U. (2013). Is it safe and efficacious for women with lymphedema secondary to breast cancer to lift heavy weights during exercise: a randomised controlled trial. J Cancer Surviv, 7(3), 413-424. doi: 10.1007/s11764-013-0284-8
Cramp, F., & Byron-Daniel, J. (2012). Exercise for the management of cancer-related fatigue in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 11, CD006145. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006145.pub3
Chan, D. S., & Norat, T. (2015). Obesity and breast cancer: not only a risk factor of the disease. Curr Treat Options Oncol, 16(5), 22. doi: 10.1007/s11864-015-0341-9
Chan, D. S., Vieira, A. R., Aune, D., Bandera, E. V., Greenwood, D. C., McTiernan, A., Norat, T. (2014). Body mass index and survival in women with breast cancer-systematic literature review and meta-analysis of 82 follow-up studies. Ann Oncol, 25(10), 1901-1914. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdu042
Chlebowski, R. T., Aiello, E., & McTiernan, A. (2002). Weight loss in breast cancer patient management. J Clin Oncol, 20(4), 1128-1143.
Christiansen, J. R., Kanellopoulos, A., Lund, M. B., Massey, R., Dalen, H., Kiserud, C. E., Aakhus, S. (2015). Impaired exercise capacity and left ventricular function in long-term adult survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Pediatr Blood Cancer, 62(8), 1437-1443. doi: 10.1002/pbc.25492
De Pergola, G., & Silvestris, F. (2013). Obesity as a major risk factor for cancer. J Obes, 2013, 291546. doi: 10.1155/2013/291546
Dolan, L. B., Campbell, K., Gelmon, K., Neil-Sztramko, S., Holmes, D., & McKenzie, D. C. (2016). Interval versus continuous aerobic exercise training in breast cancer survivors--a pilot RCT. Support Care Cancer, 24(1), 119-127. doi: 10.1007/s00520-015-2749-y
Eijsvogels, T. M., & Thompson, P. D. (2015). Exercise Is Medicine: At Any Dose? JAMA, 314(18), 1915-1916. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.10858
Elme, A., Utriainen, M., Kellokumpu-Lehtinen, P., Palva, T., Luoto, R., Nikander, R., . . . Saarto, T. (2013). Obesity and physical inactivity are related to impaired physical health of breast cancer survivors. Anticancer Res, 33(4), 1595-1602.
Farrell, S. W., Cortese, G. M., LaMonte, M. J., & Blair, S. N. (2007). Cardiorespiratory fitness, different measures of adiposity, and cancer mortality in men. Obesity (Silver Spring), 15(12), 3140-3149. doi: 10.1038/oby.2007.374
Fiuza-Luces, C., Garatachea, N., Berger, N. A., & Lucia, A. (2013). Exercise is the real polypill. Physiology (Bethesda), 28(5), 330-358. doi: 28/5/330 [pii] 10.1152/physiol.00019.2013
Floyd, J. D., Nguyen, D. T., Lobins, R. L., Bashir, Q., Doll, D. C., & Perry, M. C. (2005). Cardiotoxicity of cancer therapy. J Clin Oncol, 23(30), 7685-7696. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2005.08.789
Fong, D. Y., Ho, J. W., Hui, B. P., Lee, A. M., Macfarlane, D. J., Leung, S. S., Cheng, K. K. (2012). Physical activity for cancer survivors: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ, 344, e70.
Friedenreich, C. M., & Cust, A. E. (2008). Physical activity and breast cancer risk: impact of timing, type and dose of activity and population subgroup effects. Br J Sports Med, 42(8), 636-647. doi: bjsm.2006.029132 [pii] 10.1136/bjsm.2006.029132
Friedenreich, C. M., Neilson, H. K., O'Reilly, R., Duha, A., Yasui, Y., Morielli, A. R., Courneya, K. S. (2015). Effects of a High vs Moderate Volume of Aerobic Exercise on Adiposity Outcomes in Postmenopausal Women: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Oncol, 1(6), 766-776. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2015.2239
Friedenreich, C. M., Neilson, H. K., Woolcott, C. G., McTiernan, A., Wang, Q., Ballard-Barbash, R., Courneya, K. S. (2011). Changes in insulin resistance indicators, IGFs, and adipokines in a year-long trial of aerobic exercise in postmenopausal women. Endocr Relat Cancer, 18(3), 357-369. doi: 10.1530/ERC-10-0303
Friedenreich, C. M., Woolcott, C. G., McTiernan, A., Ballard-Barbash, R., Brant, R. F., Stanczyk, F. Z., Courneya, K. S. (2010). Alberta physical activity and breast cancer prevention trial: sex hormone changes in a year-long exercise intervention among postmenopausal women. J Clin Oncol, 28(9), 1458-1466. doi: JCO.2009.24.9557 [pii] 10.1200/JCO.2009.24.9557
Frisch, R. E., Wyshak, G., Albright, N. L., Albright, T. E., Schiff, I., Witschi, J., & Marguglio, M. (1987). Lower lifetime occurrence of breast cancer and cancers of the reproductive system among former college athletes. Am J Clin Nutr, 45(1 Suppl), 328-335.
Galvão, D. A., Nosaka, K., Taaffe, D. R., Spry, N., Kristjanson, L. J., McGuigan, M. R., Newton, R. U. (2006). Resistance training and reduction of treatment side effects in prostate cancer patients. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38(12), 2045-2052. doi: 10.1249/01.mss.0000233803.48691.8b
Garatachea, N., Santos-Lozano, A., Sanchis-Gomar, F., Fiuza-Luces, C., Pareja-Galeano, H., Emanuele, E., & Lucia, A. (2014). Elite athletes live longer than the general population: a meta-analysis. Mayo Clin Proc, 89(9), 1195-1200. doi: S0025-6196(14)00519-9 [pii] 10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.06.004
Garber, C. E., Blissmer, B., Deschenes, M. R., Franklin, B. A., Lamonte, M. J., Lee, I. M., American College of Sports, M. (2011). American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults: guidance for prescribing exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 43(7), 1334-1359. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e318213fefb
Gaudet, M. M., Kitahara, C. M., Newton, C. C., Bernstein, L., Reynolds, P., Weiderpass, E., Gapstur, S. M. (2015). Anthropometry and head and neck cancer:a pooled analysis of cohort data. Int J Epidemiol, 44(2), 673-681. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyv059
Gautron, L., & Elmquist, J. K. (2011). Sixteen years and counting: an update on leptin in energy balance. J Clin Invest, 121(6), 2087-2093. doi: 10.1172/JCI45888
George, S. M., Bernstein, L., Smith, A. W., Neuhouser, M. L., Baumgartner, K. B., Baumgartner, R. N., & Ballard-Barbash, R. (2014). Central adiposity after breast cancer diagnosis is related to mortality in the Health, Eating, Activity, and Lifestyle study. Breast Cancer Res Treat, 146(3), 647-655. doi: 10.1007/s10549-014-3048-x
Gomez-Cabrera, M. C., Domenech, E., & Vina, J. (2008). Moderate exercise is an antioxidant: upregulation of antioxidant genes by training. Free Radic Biol Med, 44(2), 126-131. doi: S0891-5849(07)00108-6 [pii] 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2007.02.001
Hardee, J. P., Porter, R. R., Sui, X., Archer, E., Lee, I. M., Lavie, C. J., & Blair, S. N. (2014). The effect of resistance exercise on all-cause mortality in cancer survivors. Mayo Clin Proc, 89(8), 1108-1115. doi: 10.1016/j.mayocp.2014.03.018
Hawkes, A. L., Lynch, B. M., Owen, N., & Aitken, J. F. (2011). Lifestyle factors associated concurrently and prospectively with co-morbid cardiovascular disease in a population-based cohort of colorectal cancer survivors. Eur J Cancer, 47(2), 267-276. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2010.10.002
Hojman, P., Dethlefsen, C., Brandt, C., Hansen, J., Pedersen, L., & Pedersen, B. K. (2011). Exercise-induced muscle-derived cytokines inhibit mammary cancer cell growth. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 301(3), E504-510. doi: ajpendo.00520.2010 [pii] 10.1152/ajpendo.00520.2010
Holmes, M. D., Chen, W. Y., Feskanich, D., Kroenke, C. H., & Colditz, G. A. (2005). Physical activity and survival after breast cancer diagnosis. JAMA, 293(20), 2479-2486. doi: 293/20/2479 [pii] 10.1001/jama.293.20.2479
Holloszy, J. O., & Coyle, E. F. (1984). Adaptations of skeletal muscle to endurance exercise and their metabolic consequences. J Appl Physiol, 56(4), 831-838.
Horner, M. J., Ries, L. A. G., Krapcho, M., Neyman, N., Aminou, R., Howlader, N., Edwards, B. K. e. (2009). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2006, National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, MD, http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2006/, based on November 2008 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER web site, 2009.
Huang, C. J., Zourdos, M. C., Jo, E., & Ormsbee, M. J. (2013). Influence of physical activity and nutrition on obesity-related immune function. ScientificWorldJournal, 2013, 752071. doi: 10.1155/2013/752071
Ibrahim, E. M., & Al-Homaidh, A. (2011). Physical activity and survival after breast cancer diagnosis: meta-analysis of published studies. Med Oncol, 28(3), 753-765. doi: 10.1007/s12032-010-9536-x
Inoue, M., Senju, S., Hirata, S., Ikuta, Y., Hayashida, Y., Irie, A., Nishimura, Y. (2010). Identification of SPARC as a candidate target antigen for immunotherapy of various cancers. Int J Cancer, 127(6), 1393-1403. doi: 10.1002/ijc.25160
Irwin, M. L. (2009). Physical activity interventions for cancer survivors. Br J Sports Med, 43(1), 32-38. doi: bjsm.2008.053843 [pii] 10.1136/bjsm.2008.053843
Irwin, M. L., Crumley, D., McTiernan, A., Bernstein, L., Baumgartner, R., Gilliland, F. D., Ballard-Barbash, R. (2003). Physical activity levels before and after a diagnosis of breast carcinoma: the Health, Eating, Activity, and Lifestyle (HEAL) study. Cancer, 97(7), 1746-1757. doi: 10.1002/cncr.11227
Irwin, M. L., Smith, A. W., McTiernan, A., Ballard-Barbash, R., Cronin, K., Gilliland, F. D., Bernstein, L. (2008). Influence of pre- and postdiagnosis physical activity on mortality in breast cancer survivors: the health, eating, activity, and lifestyle study. J Clin Oncol, 26(24), 3958-3964. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2007.15.9822
Je, Y., Jeon, J. Y., Giovannucci, E. L., & Meyerhardt, J. A. (2013). Association between physical activity and mortality in colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Int J Cancer, 133(8), 1905-1913. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28208
Jenabi, E., & Poorolajal, J. (2015). The effect of body mass index on endometrial cancer: a meta-analysis. Public Health, 129(7), 872-880. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2015.04.017
Jones, L. W., Courneya, K. S., Mackey, J. R., Muss, H. B., Pituskin, E. N., Scott, J. M., Haykowsky, M. (2012). Cardiopulmonary function and age-related decline across the breast cancer survivorship continuum. J Clin Oncol, 30(20), 2530-2537. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2011.39.9014
Jones, L. W., Douglas, P. S., Eves, N. D., Marcom, P. K., Kraus, W. E., Herndon, J. E., Peppercorn, J. (2010). Rationale and design of the Exercise Intensity Trial (EXCITE): A randomized trial comparing the effects of moderate versus moderate to high-intensity aerobic training in women with operable breast cancer. BMC Cancer, 10, 531. doi: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-531
Jones, L. W., Haykowsky, M. J., Swartz, J. J., Douglas, P. S., & Mackey, J. R. (2007). Early breast cancer therapy and cardiovascular injury. J Am Coll Cardiol, 50(15), 1435-1441. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2007.06.037
Jones, L. W., Liang, Y., Pituskin, E. N., Battaglini, C. L., Scott, J. M., Hornsby, W. E., & Haykowsky, M. (2011). Effect of exercise training on peak oxygen consumption in patients with cancer: a meta-analysis. Oncologist, 16(1), 112-120. doi: 10.1634/theoncologist.2010-0197
Jurca, R., Jackson, A. S., LaMonte, M. J., Morrow, J. R., Jr., Blair, S. N., Wareham, N. J., Laukkanen, R. (2005). Assessing cardiorespiratory fitness without performing exercise testing. Am J Prev Med, 29(3), 185-193. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.004
Kalter, J., Kampshoff, C. S., Chinapaw, M. J., van Mechelen, W., Galindo-Garre, F., Schep, G., Buffart, L. M. (2016). Mediators of Exercise Effects on HRQoL in Cancer Survivors after Chemotherapy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000976
Kasapis, C., & Thompson, P. D. (2005). The effects of physical activity on serum C-reactive protein and inflammatory markers: a systematic review. J Am Coll Cardiol, 45(10), 1563-1569. doi: 10.1016/j.jacc.2004.12.077
Kim, C. J., Kang, D. H., & Park, J. W. (2009). A meta-analysis of aerobic exercise interventions for women with breast cancer. West J Nurs Res, 31(4), 437-461. doi: 10.1177/0193945908328473
Kmietowicz, Z. (2014). Overweight and obesity are linked to 10 common cancers and more than 12,000 UK cases. BMJ, 349, g5183.
Kodama, S., Saito, K., Tanaka, S., Maki, M., Yachi, Y., Asumi, M., Sone, H. (2009). Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: a meta-analysis. JAMA, 301(19), 2024-2035. doi: 301/19/2024 [pii] 10.1001/jama.2009.681
Kushi, L. H., Doyle, C., McCullough, M., Rock, C. L., Demark-Wahnefried, W., Bandera, E. V., Gansler, T. (2012). American Cancer Society Guidelines on nutrition and physical activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activity. CA Cancer J Clin, 62(1), 30-67. doi: 10.3322/caac.20140
Lahart, I. M., Metsios, G. S., Nevill, A. M., & Carmichael, A. R. (2015). Physical activity, risk of death and recurrence in breast cancer survivors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of epidemiological studies. Acta Oncol, 54(5), 635-654. doi: 10.3109/0284186X.2014.998275
Lanier, L. L. (2008). Up on the tightrope: natural killer cell activation and inhibition. Nat Immunol, 9(5), 495-502. doi: ni1581 [pii] 10.1038/ni1581
Larsson, S. C., Orsini, N., & Wolk, A. (2007). Body mass index and pancreatic cancer risk: A meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int J Cancer, 120(9), 1993-1998. doi: 10.1002/ijc.22535
Larsson, S. C., & Wolk, A. (2007a). Obesity and colon and rectal cancer risk: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 86(3), 556-565.
Larsson, S. C., & Wolk, A. (2007b). Obesity and the risk of gallbladder cancer: a meta-analysis. Br J Cancer, 96(9), 1457-1461. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603703
Larsson, S. C., & Wolk, A. (2007c). Overweight, obesity and risk of liver cancer: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Br J Cancer, 97(7), 1005-1008. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6603932
Laukkanen, J. A., Pukkala, E., Rauramaa, R., Mäkikallio, T. H., Toriola, A. T., & Kurl, S. (2010). Cardiorespiratory fitness, lifestyle factors and cancer risk and mortality in Finnish men. Eur J Cancer, 46(2), 355-363. doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2009.07.013
Laukkanen, J. A., Rauramaa, R., Makikallio, T. H., Toriola, A. T., & Kurl, S. (2009). Intensity of leisure-time physical activity and cancer mortality in men. Br J Sports Med, 45(2), 125-129. doi: bjsm.2008.056713 [pii] 10.1136/bjsm.2008.056713
Le Marchand, L., Wilkens, L. R., & Mi, M. P. (1992). Obesity in youth and middle age and risk of colorectal cancer in men. Cancer Causes Control, 3(4), 349-354.
Lee, D. C., Sui, X., Ortega, F. B., Kim, Y. S., Church, T. S., Winett, R. A., Blair, S. N. (2011). Comparisons of leisure-time physical activity and cardiorespiratory fitness as predictors of all-cause mortality in men and women. Br J Sports Med, 45(6), 504-510. doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2009.066209
Lee, I. M., Shiroma, E. J., Lobelo, F., Puska, P., Blair, S. N., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2012). Effect of physical inactivity on major non-communicable diseases worldwide: an analysis of burden of disease and life expectancy. Lancet, 380(9838), 219-229. doi: S0140-6736(12)61031-9 [pii] 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61031-9
Li, T., Wei, S., Shi, Y., Pang, S., Qin, Q., Yin, J., Liu, L. (2016). The dose-response effect of physical activity on cancer mortality: findings from 71 prospective cohort studies. Br J Sports Med, 50(6), 339-345. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094927
Lichtenstein, P., Holm, N. V., Verkasalo, P. K., Iliadou, A., Kaprio, J., Koskenvuo, M., Hemminki, K. (2000). Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer--analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. N Engl J Med, 343(2), 78-85. doi: 10.1056/NEJM200007133430201
Liu, L., Shi, Y., Li, T., Qin, Q., Yin, J., Pang, S., Wei, S. (2016). Leisure time physical activity and cancer risk: evaluation of the WHO's recommendation based on 126 high-quality epidemiological studies. Br J Sports Med, 50(6), 372-378. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2015-094728
Liu, Z., Zhang, T. T., Zhao, J. J., Qi, S. F., Du, P., Liu, D. W., & Tian, Q. B. (2015). The association between overweight, obesity and ovarian cancer: a meta-analysis. Jpn J Clin Oncol, 45(12), 1107-1115. doi: 10.1093/jjco/hyv150
Louie, S. M., Roberts, L. S., & Nomura, D. K. (2013). Mechanisms linking obesity and cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1831(10), 1499-1508. doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.02.008
Lucia, A., Foster, C., Perez, M., & Arenas, J. (2008). What isn't taught in medical schools: the William Wordsworth lesson. Nat Clin Pract Cardiovasc Med, 5(7), 372-374. doi: ncpcardio1241 [pii] 10.1038/ncpcardio1241
Lund, E. K., Belshaw, N. J., Elliott, G. O., & Johnson, I. T. (2011). Recent advances in understanding the role of diet and obesity in the development of colorectal cancer. Proc Nutr Soc, 70(2), 194-204. doi: 10.1017/S0029665111000073
Lynch, B. M., Dunstan, D. W., Healy, G. N., Winkler, E., Eakin, E., & Owen, N. (2010). Objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time of breast cancer survivors, and associations with adiposity: findings from NHANES (2003-2006). Cancer Causes Control, 21(2), 283-288. doi: 10.1007/s10552-009-9460-6
Lynch, B. M., Dunstan, D. W., Winkler, E., Healy, G. N., Eakin, E., & Owen, N. (2011). Objectively assessed physical activity, sedentary time and waist circumference among prostate cancer survivors: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (2003-2006). Eur J Cancer Care (Engl), 20(4), 514-519. doi: ECC1205 [pii] 10.1111/j.1365-2354.2010.01205.x
Lloyd-Jones, D. M., Hong, Y., Labarthe, D., Mozaffarian, D., Appel, L. J., Van Horn, L., Committee, A. H. A. S. P. T. F. a. S. (2010). Defining and setting national goals for cardiovascular health promotion and disease reduction: the American Heart Association's strategic Impact Goal through 2020 and beyond. Circulation, 121(4), 586-613. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.192703
Ma, Y., Yang, Y., Wang, F., Zhang, P., Shi, C., Zou, Y., & Qin, H. (2013). Obesity and risk of colorectal cancer: a systematic review of prospective studies. PLoS One, 8(1), e53916. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053916
MacInnis, R. J., & English, D. R. (2006). Body size and composition and prostate cancer risk: systematic review and meta-regression analysis. Cancer Causes Control, 17(8), 989-1003. doi: 10.1007/s10552-006-0049-z
Marmot, M., Atinmo, T., Byers, T., Chen, J., Hirohata, T., Jackson, A., Beaglehole, R. (2007). Food, nutrition, physical activity, and the prevention of cancer: a global perspective (W. C. R. F. International Ed.). Washington, DC: American Institute for Cancer Research.
McGinnis, J. M., & Foege, W. H. (1993). Actual causes of death in the United States. JAMA, 270(18), 2207-2212.
McMillan, E. M., & Newhouse, I. J. (2011). Exercise is an effective treatment modality for reducing cancer-related fatigue and improving physical capacity in cancer patients and survivors: a meta-analysis. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 36(6), 892-903. doi: 10.1139/h11-082
McNeely, M. L., Campbell, K. L., Rowe, B. H., Klassen, T. P., Mackey, J. R., & Courneya, K. S. (2006). Effects of exercise on breast cancer patients and survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. CMAJ, 175(1), 34-41. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.051073
McTiernan, A. (2008). Mechanisms linking physical activity with cancer. Nat Rev Cancer, 8(3), 205-211. doi: 10.1038/nrc2325
McTiernan, A., Tworoger, S. S., Ulrich, C. M., Yasui, Y., Irwin, M. L., Rajan, K. B., Schwartz, R. S. (2004). Effect of exercise on serum estrogens in postmenopausal women: a 12-month randomized clinical trial. Cancer Res, 64(8), 2923-2928.
Meyerhardt, J. A., Giovannucci, E. L., Ogino, S., Kirkner, G. J., Chan, A. T., Willett, W., & Fuchs, C. S. (2009). Physical activity and male colorectal cancer survival. Arch Intern Med, 169(22), 2102-2108. doi: 10.1001/archinternmed.2009.412
Meyerhardt, J. A., Heseltine, D., Niedzwiecki, D., Hollis, D., Saltz, L. B., Mayer, R. J., Fuchs, C. S. (2006b). Impact of physical activity on cancer recurrence and survival in patients with stage III colon cancer: findings from CALGB 89803. J Clin Oncol, 24(22), 3535-3541. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2006.06.0863
Mishra, S. I., Scherer, R. W., Geigle, P. M., Berlanstein, D. R., Topaloglu, O., Gotay, C. C., & Snyder, C. (2012a). Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for cancer survivors. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 8, CD007566. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD007566.pub2
Mishra, S. I., Scherer, R. W., Snyder, C., Geigle, P. M., Berlanstein, D. R., & Topaloglu, O. (2012b). Exercise interventions on health-related quality of life for people with cancer during active treatment. Cochrane Database Syst Rev, 8, CD008465. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD008465.pub2
Moghaddam, A. A., Woodward, M., & Huxley, R. (2007). Obesity and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis of 31 studies with 70,000 events. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 16(12), 2533-2547. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-0708
Monninkhof, E. M., Elias, S. G., Vlems, F. A., van der Tweel, I., Schuit, A. J., Voskuil, D. W., TFPAC. (2007). Physical activity and breast cancer: a systematic review. Epidemiology, 18(1), 137-157. doi: 10.1097/01.ede.0000251167.75581.98
Moore, S. C., Gierach, G. L., Schatzkin, A., & Matthews, C. E. (2010). Physical activity, sedentary behaviours, and the prevention of endometrial cancer. Br J Cancer, 103(7), 933-938. doi: 10.1038/sj.bjc.6605902
Morimoto, L. M., White, E., Chen, Z., Chlebowski, R. T., Hays, J., Kuller, L., McTiernan, A. (2002). Obesity, body size, and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer: the Women's Health Initiative (United States). Cancer Causes Control, 13(8), 741-751.
Mortensen, O. H., Andersen, K., Fischer, C., Nielsen, A. R., Nielsen, S., Akerström, T., Pedersen, B. K. (2008). Calprotectin is released from human skeletal muscle tissue during exercise. J Physiol, 586(14), 3551-3562. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2008.153551
Nie, J., & Sage, E. H. (2009). SPARC inhibits adipogenesis by its enhancement of beta-catenin signaling. J Biol Chem, 284(2), 1279-1290. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M808285200
Norheim, F., Raastad, T., Thiede, B., Rustan, A. C., Drevon, C. A., & Haugen, F. (2011). Proteomic identification of secreted proteins from human skeletal muscle cells and expression in response to strength training. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 301(5), E1013-1021. doi: ajpendo.00326.2011 [pii] 10.1152/ajpendo.00326.2011
Ojuka, E. O., & Goyaram, V. (2014). Mechanisms in exercise-induced increase in glucose disposal in skeletal muscle. Med Sport Sci, 60, 71-81. doi: 10.1159/000357337
Palomer, X., Pérez, A., & Blanco-Vaca, F. (2005). Adiponectina: un nuevo nexo entre obesidad, resistencia a la insulina y enfermedad cardiovascular. Medicina Clinica, 124(10), 388-395.
Pareja-Galeano, H., Garatachea, N., & Lucia, A. (2015). Exercise as a Polypill for Chronic Diseases. Prog Mol Biol Transl Sci, 135, 497-526. doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2015.07.019
Patlak, M., & Nass, S. J. (2012). [The role of obesity in cancer survival and recurrence].
Patnaik, J. L., Byers, T., DiGuiseppi, C., Dabelea, D., & Denberg, T. D. (2011). Cardiovascular disease competes with breast cancer as the leading cause of death for older females diagnosed with breast cancer: a retrospective cohort study. Breast Cancer Res, 13(3), R64. doi: 10.1186/bcr2901
Pedersen, B. K. (2011). Exercise-induced myokines and their role in chronic diseases. Brain Behav Immun, 25(5), 811-816. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.02.010
Pedersen, B. K., & Saltin, B. (2006). Evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in chronic disease. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 16 Suppl 1, 3-63. doi: SMS520 [pii] 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2006.00520.x
Peel, A. B., Thomas, S. M., Dittus, K., Jones, L. W., & Lakoski, S. G. (2014). Cardiorespiratory fitness in breast cancer patients: a call for normative values. J Am Heart Assoc, 3(1), e000432. doi: jah3410 [pii] 10.1161/JAHA.113.000432
Peel, J. B., Sui, X., Adams, S. A., Hébert, J. R., Hardin, J. W., & Blair, S. N. (2009). A prospective study of cardiorespiratory fitness and breast cancer mortality. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 41(4), 742-748. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31818edac7
Perez, L. M., Pareja-Galeano, H., Sanchis-Gomar, F., Emanuele, E., Lucia, A., & Galvez, B. G. (2016). 'Adipaging': Aging and obesity share biological hallmarks related to a dysfunctional adipose tissue. J Physiol. doi: 10.1113/JP271691
Petersen, A. M., & Pedersen, B. K. (2005). The anti-inflammatory effect of exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985), 98(4), 1154-1162. doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00164.2004
Pisani, P. (2008). Hyper-insulinaemia and cancer, meta-analyses of epidemiological studies. Arch Physiol Biochem, 114(1), 63-70. doi: 10.1080/13813450801954451
Playdon, M. C., Bracken, M. B., Sanft, T. B., Ligibel, J. A., Harrigan, M., & Irwin, M. L. (2015). Weight Gain After Breast Cancer Diagnosis and All-Cause Mortality: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst, 107(12), djv275. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djv275
Protani, M., Coory, M., & Martin, J. H. (2010). Effect of obesity on survival of women with breast cancer: systematic review and meta-analysis. Breast Cancer Res Treat, 123(3), 627-635. doi: 10.1007/s10549-010-0990-0
Rebillard, A., Lefeuvre-Orfila, L., Gueritat, J., & Cillard, J. (2013). Prostate cancer and physical activity: adaptive response to oxidative stress. Free Radic Biol Med, 60, 115-124. doi: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2013.02.009
Reeves, G. K., Pirie, K., Beral, V., Green, J., Spencer, E., Bull, D., & Collaboration, M. W. S. (2007). Cancer incidence and mortality in relation to body mass index in the Million Women Study: cohort study. BMJ, 335(7630), 1134. doi: 10.1136/bmj.39367.495995.AE
Renehan, A. G., Soerjomataram, I., Tyson, M., Egger, M., Zwahlen, M., Coebergh, J. W., & Buchan, I. (2010). Incident cancer burden attributable to excess body mass index in 30 European countries. Int J Cancer, 126(3), 692-702. doi: 10.1002/ijc.24803
Renehan, A. G., Tyson, M., Egger, M., Heller, R. F., & Zwahlen, M. (2008). Body-mass index and incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Lancet, 371(9612), 569-578. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60269-X
Rock, C. L., Doyle, C., Demark-Wahnefried, W., Meyerhardt, J., Courneya, K. S., Schwartz, A. L., Gansler, T. (2012). Nutrition and physical activity guidelines for cancer survivors. CA Cancer J Clin, 62(4), 243-274. doi: 10.3322/caac.21142
Rogers, C. J., Colbert, L. H., Greiner, J. W., Perkins, S. N., & Hursting, S. D. (2008). Physical activity and cancer prevention : pathways and targets for intervention. Sports Med, 38(4), 271-296.
Ruiz-Casado, A., & Lucia, A. (2014). The time has come for oncologists to recommend physical activity to cancer survivors. Archives of Exercise in Health and Disease, 4(1), 214-215.
Ruiz-Casado, A., Verdugo, A. S., Solano, M. J., Aldazabal, I. P., Fiuza-Luces, C., Alejo, L. B., Lucia, A. (2014). Objectively assessed physical activity levels in spanish cancer survivors. Oncol Nurs Forum, 41(1), E12-20. doi: K32N038N48786T42 [pii] 10.1188/14.ONF.E12-E20
Sanchis-Gomar, F., Lucia, A., & Pareja-Galeano, H. (2015a). Cancer Is Essentially Due to Bad Luck ... But Not So Much If You Don't Exercise or Are Overweight. Nutr Cancer, 67(5), 865. doi: 10.1080/01635581.2015.1043020
Sanchis-Gomar, F., Lucia, A., Yvert, T., Ruiz-Casado, A., Pareja-Galeano, H., Santos-Lozano, A., Berger, N. A. (2014). Physical Inactivity And Low Fitness Deserve More Attention To Alter Cancer Risk And Prognosis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). doi: 1940-6207.CAPR-14-0320 [pii] 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-14-0320
Sanchis-Gomar, F., Lucia, A., Yvert, T., Ruiz-Casado, A., Pareja-Galeano, H., Santos-Lozano, A., Berger, N. A. (2015b). Physical inactivity and low fitness deserve more attention to alter cancer risk and prognosis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila), 8(2), 105-110. doi: 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-14-0320
Sawada, S. S., Lee, I. M., Naito, H., Kakigi, R., Goto, S., Kanazawa, M., Blair, S. N. (2014). Cardiorespiratory fitness, body mass index, and cancer mortality: a cohort study of Japanese men. BMC Public Health, 14, 1012. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-1012
Schapira, D. V., Clark, R. A., Wolff, P. A., Jarrett, A. R., Kumar, N. B., & Aziz, N. M. (1994). Visceral obesity and breast cancer risk. Cancer, 74(2), 632-639.
Schmid, D., & Leitzmann, M. F. (2014). Association between physical activity and mortality among breast cancer and colorectal cancer survivors: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol, 25(7), 1293-1311. doi: mdu012 [pii] 10.1093/annonc/mdu012
Schmid, D., & Leitzmann, M. F. (2015). Cardiorespiratory fitness as predictor of cancer mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Oncol, 26(2), 272-278. doi: 10.1093/annonc/mdu250
Schmitz, K. H., Ahmed, R. L., Troxel, A., Cheville, A., Smith, R., Lewis-Grant, L., Greene, Q. P. (2009). Weight lifting in women with breast-cancer-related lymphedema. N Engl J Med, 361(7), 664-673. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0810118
Schmitz, K. H., Ahmed, R. L., Troxel, A. B., Cheville, A., Lewis-Grant, L., Smith, R., Chittams, J. (2010a). Weight lifting for women at risk for breast cancer-related lymphedema: a randomized trial. JAMA, 304(24), 2699-2705. doi: 10.1001/jama.2010.1837
Schmitz, K. H., Courneya, K. S., Matthews, C., Demark-Wahnefried, W., Galvão, D. A., Pinto, B. M., Medicine, A. C. o. S. (2010b). American College of Sports Medicine roundtable on exercise guidelines for cancer survivors. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 42(7), 1409-1426. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181e0c112
Schwartz, A. L., & Winters-Stone, K. (2009). Effects of a 12-month randomized controlled trial of aerobic or resistance exercise during and following cancer treatment in women. Phys Sportsmed, 37(3), 62-67. doi: 10.3810/psm.2009.10.1730
Sedentary Behaviour Research Network. (2012). Letter to the editor: standardized use of the terms "sedentary" and "sedentary behaviours". Appl Physiol Nutr Metab, 37(3), 540-542. doi: 10.1139/h2012-024
Segal, R., Evans, W., Johnson, D., Smith, J., Colletta, S., Gayton, J., Reid, R. (2001). Structured exercise improves physical functioning in women with stages I and II breast cancer: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Clin Oncol, 19(3), 657-665.
Segal, R. J., Reid, R. D., Courneya, K. S., Sigal, R. J., Kenny, G. P., Prud'Homme, D. G., Slovinec D'Angelo, M. E. (2009). Randomized controlled trial of resistance or aerobic exercise in men receiving radiation therapy for prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol, 27(3), 344-351. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2007.15.4963
Siegel, R. L., Miller, K. D., & Jemal, A. (2016). Cancer statistics, 2016. CA Cancer J Clin, 66(1), 7-30. doi: 10.3322/caac.21332
Smith, W. A., Nolan, V. G., Robison, L. L., Hudson, M. M., & Ness, K. K. (2011). Physical activity among cancer survivors and those with no history of cancer- a report from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2003-2006. Am J Transl Res, 3(4), 342-350.
Smyth, M. J., Cretney, E., Kelly, J. M., Westwood, J. A., Street, S. E., Yagita, H., Hayakawa, Y. (2005). Activation of NK cell cytotoxicity. Mol Immunol, 42(4), 501-510. doi: S0161-5890(04)00309-8 [pii] 10.1016/j.molimm.2004.07.034
Song, H., Guan, Y., Zhang, L., Li, K., & Dong, C. (2010). SPARC interacts with AMPK and regulates GLUT4 expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun, 396(4), 961-966. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.05.033
Strasser, B., Steindorf, K., Wiskemann, J., & Ulrich, C. M. (2013). Impact of resistance training in cancer survivors: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 45(11), 2080-2090. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e31829a3b63
Tan, W., Gao, M., Liu, N., Zhang, G., Xu, T., & Cui, W. (2015). Body Mass Index and Risk of Gallbladder Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies. Nutrients, 7(10), 8321-8334. doi: 10.3390/nu7105387
Thune, I., & Lund, E. (1997). The influence of physical activity on lung-cancer risk: A prospective study of 81,516 men and women. Int J Cancer, 70(1), 57-62. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0215(19970106)70:1<57::AID-IJC9>3.0.CO;2-5 [pii]
Tian, L., Lu, H. J., Lin, L., & Hu, Y. (2016). Effects of aerobic exercise on cancer-related fatigue: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Support Care Cancer, 24(2), 969-983. doi: 10.1007/s00520-015-2953-9
Tomasetti, C., & Vogelstein, B. (2015). Cancer etiology. Variation in cancer risk among tissues can be explained by the number of stem cell divisions. Science, 347(6217), 78-81. doi: 10.1126/science.1260825
Tomlinson, D., Diorio, C., Beyene, J., & Sung, L. (2014). Effect of exercise on cancer-related fatigue: a meta-analysis. Am J Phys Med Rehabil, 93(8), 675-686. doi: 10.1097/PHM.0000000000000083
United States. Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans(http://health.gov/paguidelines/guidelines/).
Valko, M., Rhodes, C. J., Moncol, J., Izakovic, M., & Mazur, M. (2006). Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chem Biol Interact, 160(1), 1-40. doi: 10.1016/j.cbi.2005.12.009
van Gemert, W. A., May, A. M., Schuit, A. J., Oosterhof, B. Y., Peeters, P. H., & Monninkhof, E. M. (2016). Effect of Weight Loss with or without Exercise on Inflammatory Markers and Adipokines in Postmenopausal Women: The SHAPE-2 Trial, A Randomized Controlled Trial. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 25(5), 799-806.
van Gemert, W. A., Monninkhof, E. M., May, A. M., Peeters, P. H., & Schuit, A. J. (2015). Effect of exercise on insulin sensitivity in healthy postmenopausal women: the SHAPE study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 24(1), 81-87. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-14-0722
Van Moll, C. C., Schep, G., Vreugdenhil, A., Savelberg, H. H., & Husson, O. (2016). The effect of training during treatment with chemotherapy on muscle strength and endurance capacity: A systematic review. Acta Oncol, 55(5), 539-546. doi: 10.3109/0284186X.2015.1127414
Velthuis, M. J., Agasi-Idenburg, S. C., Aufdemkampe, G., & Wittink, H. M. (2010). The effect of physical exercise on cancer-related fatigue during cancer treatment: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol), 22(3), 208-221. doi: S0936-6555(09)00411-7 [pii] 10.1016/j.clon.2009.12.005
Vermaete, N., Wolter, P., Verhoef, G., & Gosselink, R. (2013). Physical activity, physical fitness and the effect of exercise training interventions in lymphoma patients: a systematic review. Ann Hematol, 92(8), 1007-1021. doi: 10.1007/s00277-013-1689-1
Vona-Davis, L., & Rose, D. P. (2007). Adipokines as endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine factors in breast cancer risk and progression. Endocr Relat Cancer, 14(2), 189-206. doi: 10.1677/ERC-06-0068
Walsh, N. P., Gleeson, M., Shephard, R. J., Woods, J. A., Bishop, N. C., Fleshner, M., Simon, P. (2011). Position statement. Part one: Immune function and exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev, 17, 6-63.
Wang, D., Zheng, W., Wang, S. M., Wang, J. B., Wei, W. Q., Liang, H., Boffetta, P. (2012). Estimation of cancer incidence and mortality attributable to overweight, obesity, and physical inactivity in China. Nutr Cancer, 64(1), 48-56. doi: 10.1080/01635581.2012.630166
Wei, E. K., Giovannucci, E., Fuchs, C. S., Willett, W. C., & Mantzoros, C. S. (2005). Low plasma adiponectin levels and risk of colorectal cancer in men: a prospective study. J Natl Cancer Inst, 97(22), 1688-1694. doi: 10.1093/jnci/dji376
Wei, M., Kampert, J. B., Barlow, C. E., Nichaman, M. Z., Gibbons, L. W., Paffenbarger, R. S., & Blair, S. N. (1999). Relationship between low cardiorespiratory fitness and mortality in normal-weight, overweight, and obese men. JAMA, 282(16), 1547-1553.
WHO. (2010). Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Switzerland. (http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/9789241599979/en/)
Williams, P. T. (2014). Significantly greater reduction in breast cancer mortality from post-diagnosis running than walking. Int J Cancer, 135(5), 1195-1202. doi: 10.1002/ijc.28740
Winters-Stone, K. M., Dobek, J., Nail, L., Bennett, J. A., Leo, M. C., Naik, A., & Schwartz, A. (2011). Strength training stops bone loss and builds muscle in postmenopausal breast cancer survivors: a randomized, controlled trial. Breast Cancer Res Treat, 127(2), 447-456. doi: 10.1007/s10549-011-1444-z
Winters-Stone, K. M., Neil, S. E., & Campbell, K. L. (2014). Attention to principles of exercise training: a review of exercise studies for survivors of cancers other than breast. Br J Sports Med, 48(12), 987-995. doi: bjsports-2012-091732 [pii] 10.1136/bjsports-2012-091732
World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. (2011). Continuous Update Project Report. Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity, and the Prevention of Colorectal Cancer.
Wu, Y., Zhang, D., & Kang, S. (2013). Physical activity and risk of breast cancer: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Breast Cancer Res Treat, 137(3), 869-882. doi: 10.1007/s10549-012-2396-7
Yu, H., & Rohan, T. (2000). Role of the insulin-like growth factor family in cancer development and progression. J Natl Cancer Inst, 92(18), 1472-1489.
Yui, S., Mikami, M., & Yamazaki, M. (1995). Purification and characterization of the cytotoxic factor in rat peritoneal exudate cells: its identification as the calcium binding protein complex, calprotectin. J Leukoc Biol, 58(3), 307-316.
